Analysis of Whole Foods Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis of Whole Foods Inc - Essay Example Analyses used in this study are Five Forces, Life Cycle Assessment, Value Chain Analysis, SWOT, PEST, and 7S. Buyer power- Whole Foods faces a weak buyer power because buyers are fragmented and do not have the particular influence on product or price. Organic food is sold in different 14,500 supermarkets in the States, so buyers do not have a single power to be able to dictate their price on the retailers. But if we consider Whole Foods to be the buyer, then we can consider this company to have a very strong buyer power because it can purchase and command a price from direct suppliers, and can buy out the competition.   A threat of new entrants. The threat of new entrants to the industry is low because of the big amount of investment needed to compete in the industry. The average capital cost of opening a food market site amounted to $15.1 million in 2007, plus the inventory cost of $ 850,000. Whole Foods Market pre-opening expenses averaged $2.6 million for the 21 stores they have opened. It is doubtful whether the products of the small manufacturers can reach the same shelves as with Whole Foods.   A threat of substitutes. There is a low threat of substitute because of the growing concern of people on wellness products. Whole Foods succeeded in building a competitive advantage. Their prices are comparatively higher than conventional foods, but they have established a niche in the industry because of the perceived needs of costumers.   A threat of rivalry - There is a high degree of rivalry in the industry because of the emergence of competitors in the industry. The rivalry is intense because competitors like Fresh & Easy Neighborhood, Sunflower Farmers Market. Traders Joe and Fresh Market offered several competitive moves. Competitors applied innovations, features, and lower pricing, For instance, Fresh Market developed small markets with the feel and atmosphere of an open European style market.  

Understand the attributes and skills of a leader Essay

Understand the attributes and skills of a leader - Essay Example They follow it up by the creation of a plan, monitoring and control of activities and then reporting and reviewing the entire process (Braun, et al., 2014). The managers for the group are responsible for the establishment of communication standards, group approach, anticipation and resolution of group conflicts, monitoring and maintaining ethics, discipline and integrity. Moreover, they are responsible for the development of group capability, maturity, team-spirit, morale, cooperation and team working, and they monitor all the process going on in the group (Adair, 2015). For the guidance of the team and the organization, the setup of effective objectives is very crucial for a leader. If the objectives are formulated badly, they can lead the entire organization in the direction that is wrong. In order to setup the SMART objectives, here is what needs to be done (Bill, 2004). Before starting on the SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timely) objectives, the first thing that needs to be done is the distinguishing between the aims and objectives, and targets and goals. Objectives are supposed to be the battle-plans while the goals and aims are supposed to be aspiration-related. The best way to use the SMART technique is actually using it as MARST instead (Wolf & Akkaraju, 2014). Measure the objectives that you can achieve, by counting the evidences. Then, link the measurable with the achievable, because there is no point spending time on objectives that cannot be achieved. Follow the achievable with the realistic, because if the objectives are not realistic, they will not be achievable. After that worry about the specifications of the objectives, and then set timely deadlines for achieving the objectives in that specific timeframe (Reber, 2014). I worked on a team that had concerns that few team members were putting in limited efforts and imparting a negative impact on the rest

Classical Theory Pertains To Crime Prevention

Classical Theory Pertains To Crime Prevention The classical school of criminology is a group of thinkers of crime and punishment in the 18th century. The most prominent members, such as Cesare Beccaria, shared the idea that criminal behavior could be understood and controlled. The classical theory insisted that individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interests, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. The following manuscript will cover three key concepts the origins of classical thought, popular forerunner of classical thought, Cesare Beccaria, and how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention. Lastly, the educational material will show that crime is caused by natural forces and the absence of effective punishment allows it to continue. With clearly defined laws, public punishment, and the elimination of judicial discretion crime can be prevented by deterrence. Crimes and Punishment: How the Classical Theory Pertains to Crime Prevention Criminology has six theoretical developments in its discipline. This essay will look into the classical school theory. The classical school of criminology has many parts such as the major principles of the classical school, forerunners of classical thought, and policy implications of the classical school. First, I will define classical theory as well as summarize the origins of classical thought. Next, I will explore one of the most popular forerunners of classical thought, Cesare Beccaria. Lastly, I will discuss how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention as well as how deterrence plays apart. Literature Review To properly compose a manuscript on how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention, classical theorist Beccarias work had to be examined. Many of the reforms that occurred in the 18th century can be ascribed to Beccaria (Newman Marongiu, 1990). Beccaria (1983), discussed that the more promptly the punishment follows the crime the more useful it will be. Martin, Mutchnick, and Austin (1990), states that the classical and neoclassical thought represents more a philosophy of justice than it does a theory of crime causation. Cohen and Felson (1979), suggested that lifestyles contribute significantly to both the volume and the type of crime found in any society. Thus, Reed and Yeager (1996), examined Gottfredson and Hirshis theory of crime, with particular respect to its applicability to organizational offending. Moriarty and Williams (1996), discussed the individual choice and a relative disregard for the role of social factors in crime causation, such as poverty, poor home environment, and inadequate socialization. Rational choice theory seems to assume that everyone is equally capable of making a rational decision; however, it depends on the personality of the individual (Tunnell, 1990). In dealing with punishment and how it deters crime it was necessary to look at studies. Although one might expect study results to show that the death penalty deters crime; however, it was found that the rates of murder committed between states that have eliminated the death penalty and those that retain it had little variation (Bailey, 1979). Sitze (2009), discusses how capital punishment presents a problem for the philosophy of law. Also, Sitze expands on Beccaria thought of how the death penalty is bad economy of power. Discussion Classical Theory The classical theory dominated crime theory during the late 1700s and the 1800s. The essential ideas of classical theory include individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interest, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. Unless they are deterred by the threat of swift, certain, and appropriately severe punishments, they may commit crimes in their pursuit of self-interest (Martinetal, 1990). Classical theory argues that crime is caused by natural forces or forces of this world, such as the absence of effective punishments. Classical theory was developed in reaction to the harsh, corrupt, and often arbitrary nature of the legal system in the 1700s (Vold et al., 2002). Classical theorists were mainly interested in critiquing this system and offering proposals for its reform, but embedded in their arguments is a theory of criminal behavior. The circumstances of some individuals, then, may lead them to evaluate the potential pains of punishment and pleasures of crime differently than other individuals. Poor people, for example, may be less deterred by the pains of punishment and more attracted by the pleasures of crime (Beccaria, 1983). Classical theory assumes that people are rational and engage in crime to minimize their pain and maximize their pleasure. Some criminologists, however, argue that many offenders are not rational and that crime is not in their self-interest. Rather, they engage in crime because of forces beyond their control and they often suffer greatly because of their behavior (Vold et al., 2002). Classical theorists state that whether people engage in crime is largely dependent on the swiftness, certainty, and appropriateness of the punishments they face. Cesare Beccaria Cesare Beccaria was an 18th century Italian nobleman and economist. Beccaria was considered to most the father of Criminology. Because of Beccarias work he was the most important figure head of what is known as the Classical Theory. The 18th century was times in history were severe and often extreme punishment was enforced for crimes committed. During such a time in history Beccaria offered the theory of utility. Beccaria examined the causes of delinquent and criminal behavior, and by doing so was able to scientifically determine what causes such deviant behavior. Beccaria rejected the theories of the European Enlightenment which characterized the deviant behavior under the theories of naturalism and even demonology. Beccaria wanted to pass on the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment, by doing so these new theories passed on rationalism and humanitarianism (Martin et al., 1990). Beccaria set out to make punishment for committing crimes rational. He believed that there should be a hierarchy of punishment a scale determining what punishments is suitable for the behavior and/or intent. The scale of punishment would have set punishments for repeat offenders as well as for the more serious crimes. This would change how the death penalty was imposed. The scale of punishment, Beccaria was working on, would only impose the death penalty depending on the severity of the crime and not the act or acts of committing or involvement. Beccaria also believed that judges had to broad of discretion on which punishment to impose on what act of deviant behavior. Therefore, Beccaria favored specific punishments fitting each crime. He published an historic piece, An Essay on Crimes and Punishment, in 1764, to communicate his observations on the laws and justice system of his time. In the Essay, Beccaria distilled the notion of the social contract into the idea that laws are the c onditions under which independent and isolated men united to form a society. (Beccaria, 1983) Crime Preventions and Deterrence Deterrence theory most fully reflects the ideas of classical theory. Deterrence theorists argue that people are rational and pursue their own interests, attempting to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. They choose to engage in crime if they believe it is to their advantage. The best way to prevent crime, therefore, is through punishments that are swift, certain, and appropriately severe. Deterrence theorists, like classical theorists, focus primarily on the impact of official punishments on crime. Deterrence occurs when someone refrains from committing a crime because he or she fears the certainty, swiftness, and/or severity of formal legal punishment (Paternoster Bachman, 2001). Deterrence theory makes a distinction between two types of deterrence; specific and general. Specific deterrence refers to the idea that punishment reduces the crime of those specific people who are punished. So, punishing someone for a crime should reduce the likelihood of further crime by that person. Studies on general deterrence ask whether punishment deters crime among people in the general population. It has been argued that punishment may deter crime among those who are not punished. Therefore, deterrence through punishment is an effective way to prevent crime (Paternoster Piquero, 1995). Conclusion Throughout the essay classical theory, Cesare Beccaria, and deterrence has been explored in relation with one another. The manuscript disclosed that individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interests, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. Classical theorist Cesare Beccaria determined that if the justice system reformed such as using rational penalties for crimes committed then such behavior could be deterred. The deterrence theory proved that people do refrain from committing crimes because of the fear of punishment. Therefore, the deterrence theory most fully reflects the ideas of classical theory.

Inflation and the Economy Essays -- Inflation Economy Economics Essays

Inflation and the Economy WHY UNDER MONETARY FREEDOM INFLATION COULD BE STOPPED WITHOUT BRINGING ABOUT UNEMPLOYMENT 1. Unemployment and inflation do coexist and inflation causes much unemployment which would cease with it. 2. Excessively inflated prices would fall to market prices and so promote sales and employment. 3. Less government spending would mean more private spending. 4. Prices and wages could be adjusted fast. If this is not done then this is not the effect of stopping inflation! 5. Price adjustments through gold-value clearing could take place already during a continuing paper money inflation - leaving no adjustment problem. 6. While FALLING prices do indeed deter from buying and promote unemployment, FALLEN prices do the contrary. Under monetary freedom there would only be FALLEN prices. 7. The un- or under-used productive capital investment would, under monetary freedom, be almost fully used and would thus ensure that there arises or remains no unemployment. 8. Under monetary freedom there would also be no difficulty to mobilize fully the real working capital of any country: the goods and services ready for retail sale and to finance with them full employment - naturally at market wages and prices. 9. Monetary freedom would allow all desired exchanges to take place and would put Say's Law, that supply tends to create equivalent demand, into practice. No sales difficulties or unemployment would result. 10.Unemployment is an unnatural condition: Under monetary freedom it would no more occur than under barter. TEN WAYS HOW, INDEED, WRONG ATTEMPTS TO STOP INFLATION COULD LEAD TO UNEMPLOYMENT - UNDER CONTINUED MONETARY DESPOTISM. 1. Stopping the note ... ...s of the free banking literature. 17. A critique of the note issue monopoly. Sorry, but 15-17 are not yet out, either. On the other hand, LMP has fiched hundreds of monetary freedom titles, including a 124pp free banking bibliography. A handbook on monetary freedom and one dealing especially with cause and cure for unemployment are still in the works by February 1999. John Zube, 11. 2. 1999. Note: I merely scanned this text in and afterward somewhat corrected the scanning and did minor editing. The scanning may still have left some mistakes I did not notice, apart from my own and usual ones. The Word 97 program sometimes insists upon its own layout and stubbornly resists my correction attempts. Somewhat corrected and edited on 26.6.1999 & 2.7.99. Bibliography: Go back to: lmphomepage.htm.htm Go forward to: app23-lt.htm.htm

Importance of Distance Education in India

Importance of Distance Education in India Asif Ahmed After independence, India had made tremendous progress in the field of education, though mostly quantitative in nature. Earlier, education was available only to the elites in society, and a large majority of poor and marginalized people remained illiterate. Political considerations have an important role in the expansion of higher education, especially at the state level. The state government experienced tremendous pressure from the public to establish more and more colleges and universities.In a democratic society, even the strong governments find it very difficult to resist such pressures and are compelled to succumb to the same. These considerations have led to fast expansion of higher education in our country, which in turn, have adverse impact upon its quality. Therefore, in order to insure access and education of a reasonably good quality,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   we must think of some alternative system capable of supplementing t he role of conventional system, and distance education is one of such alternatives.The distance education mode was adopted by many universities to meet the ever-growing demand of those students who lacked means to pursue higher education through the regular stream. Also, there were economic constraints. Consequently, many universities in India in various regions started correspondence courses or programs by providing notes, developing a system of evaluation of response sheets. The success of these courses led to the establishment of Indira Gandhi National Open University, which is now rated as one of the best distance courses university in the world.Due to limitations of the formal system of education, policy makers were attracted towards non-conventional modes of education for providing non-residential studies like correspondence courses. The Distance Education mode, in which it is not necessary to bring all the students together to listen to the face-to-face lectures, was consider ed worthwhile. However in distance education system, the provision of occasional meetings between the teachers and the student is made. These meetings are popularly known asPersonal Contact Programmes (PCPs). The learners receive their study material through postal services for study at their home or workplace. The efforts of the students are supplemented by assignments, which are checked and evaluated by the concerned subject experts. So, Correspondence education is a piece and part of open learning. Distance education system is also known by some other common names like Correspondence Courses, Correspondence Education, Distance Education and External or Private Appearance etc.This system of education is suitable for the persons who wanted to enhance their qualifications but were not in a position to attend classes on a regular basis. Such distance courses proved a boon for the service persons as well as others desirous of pursuing higher education. As a result, a large number of i n-service persons, professionals, entrepreneurs, job-less youth, school teachers, housewives and old aged free persons made a beeline for admission to distance education study programmes.The term Distance Education received a formal recognition in 1982 when the four decades old International Council for Correspondence Education was renamed as the International Council for Distance Education. The old concept of distance education was exclusively associated with print material, while the new concept of distance education include supplementary material being used through non-print media, also such as radio, television, computers, laptops, Cd's, through projectors, video lessons and satellites. These institutions may be called the dual mode institutions.Now at present, India has two types of distance education institutions. They are  Ã‚   1. Correspondence courses institutions. 2. Open Universities. Distance education gets overwhelming response in India, the universities introduced ma ny new distance-education job oriented courses according to the changing times and students requirements. However, in this process, the actual motive of providing quality education to all took the backseat as the main focus of universities slowly shifted to making more and more money.Currently in India, the Distance Education departments are generating the maximum revenue for their universities, in many cases more than even the professional and self financing courses. The only thing to check here that the authorities of the universities running distance education courses should sharply ensure that these institutions of higher learning do not get reduced to degree distributing institutes.So universities and distance institutions higher authorities keep ensure that only quality education should be provided through distance learning programmes. In case of research based higher studies or some other professional courses being run through distance education, provisions should be made for the proper library, laboratory and required study related essential equipments and materials for the students in coordination with other related universities running similar programmes or located in the same region.It would rather be more appropriate if an inter-university body is set up by the UGC or The International Council for Distance Education of India coordinated by government educational related authorities to monitor and review the distance education programmes run by different universities and to ensure smooth progress of distance education. The correspondence courses institutions are offering more than 400 programmes in India, about 50 percent of which are professional in nature. The enrollment in these institutions is of the order of 9,00,000 in year 1999, which forms 11. 4 percent of the total enrollment in higher education in the country. An important point to be noted here is that the growth rate of enrollment in correspondence and distance education mode has been hi gher than that of higher education in general (Period,1990-2000,Source-UGC Reports). Distance Education makes it eminently possible to democratize higher education to provide access to high quality education to all, to offer need-based academic programmes, to promote and reach quality education to the learner's to their doorstep, and to set and maintain standards in higher education.Relaxed entry and exit regulation, self-appointed pace of study, flexibility in selection of courses, self-determined place of study and examination. Freedom to pursue one's study at any other place simultaneously and cost effectiveness is the reason's instrumental in making the experiment in distance education a success. The annual enrolment in Open Universities in our country has gone up from 2,00,939 to 3,50,000 in just three years, i. . , from 1995 to 1998. It is an increase of about 74 percent. Similarly the cumulative enrolment has almost doubled from 5,71,983 in 1995 to 10,50,000 in 1998. The worl d of technology is being reshaped by global trends such as convergence, increased bandwidth, enhanced multimedia capabilities, miniaturization, environmental variations, increase mobility, enhanced processing power, more powerful cognitive tools and reduced cost.These trends support transition across four generations in distance education models and associated delivery technologies: Correspondence Model (Print), Multimedia Model (Print; Audio-Video, Counselling sessions and continuous Evaluation Methods, TV / Radio Broadcast); Teleconferencing Model (One way video and Two way Audio teleconferencing, Interactive Phone-in-Radio Counselling) and Computer Aided Learning (Interactive Multimedia, Internet-Based Access better known as community Access Device to www resources) and new techniques of making of Video Lessons and provide and avail these to students in the form of Cd's.So we can say that distance education mode has become very popular and common in India, because it is catering to a wide range of aspirants (students), who are willing to upgrade their educational qualifications for various reasons. The Distance education system provides opportunities not only to younger students but also to those from the older age groups. The main reasons for increasing interest in Distance education lies in the need for continuing education in today's competitive world. Every people always try to add value to their competence in their bid to advance their carrier further.Distance Education is also very cheaper to compare with regular mode of education. Distance education has greatly reduced the wall of distance between education and a normal student beyond the long distance of home or work place to university. Now just a little need to increase the need to make it professional and employability part of education community. References Ambika Sharanjit Kaur (1996): Managing Distance Education, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi. A. W. Khan. â€Å"Online distance learnin g: A model for development countries†.Keynote address delivered at the international conference EDUNET-99 on Internet and Education held at Chennai on December 16-17, 1999. D. Pulla Rao, Article â€Å"Development of Correspondence Education in India: An Appraisal†. Indian Journal of Adult Education, Vol. 67,No. 3-4, July-December 2006, pp. 59-64. Inayat Khan (1989): Distance Teaching, Amar Parkashan, New Delhi. J. C. Taylor, â€Å"Flexible delivery: Globalization of lifelong learning†. Indian Journal of Adult Education, Vol. 7,(1), July-December 2006, pp. 55-67. Prithipal Singh Kapoor, Article â€Å"Distance Education Needs Revamp†.The Tribune, Chandigarh. Saumitra Mohan and K D Prasad, Article â€Å"Distance Education: Insider's Story†. Third Concept. July 2001, pp. 55-58. Sumit Dhawan, Article â€Å"Time to Review Distance Education†. The Tribune, Chandigarh, May 15, 2007 Venugopal Reddy, V and Manjulika, S(1996): Distance Education in Indi a; A Model for Developing Countries, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi. Article- â€Å"Distance Education in  India†. Published in THIRD CONCEPT (An International Journal of Ideas, ISSN 09070-7247). November 2007 issue on page no 29-32.

Backward Design Essay

Deliberate and focused instructional design requires us as teachers and curriculum writers to make an important shift in our thinking about the nature of our job. The shift involves thinking a great deal, first, about the specific learnings sought, and the evidence of such learnings, before thinking about what we, as the teacher, will do or provide in teaching and learning activities. Though considerations about what to teach and how to teach it may dominate our thinking as a matter of habit, the challenge is to focus first on the desired learnings from which appropriate teaching will logically follow. Our lessons, units, and courses should be logically inferred from the results sought, not derived from the methods, books, and activities with which we are most comfortable. Curriculum should lay out the most effective ways of achieving specific results. It is analogous to travel planning. Our frameworks should provide a set of itineraries deliberately designed to meet cultural goals rather than a purposeless tour of all the major sites in a foreign country. In short, the best designs derive backward from the learnings sought. The appropriateness of this approach becomes clearer when we consider the educational purpose that is the focus of this book: understanding. We cannot say how to teach for understanding or which material and activities to use until we are quite clear about which specific understandings we are after and what such understandings look like in practice. We can best decide, as guides, what â€Å"sites† to have our student â€Å"tourists† visit and what specific â€Å"culture† they should experience in their brief time there only if we are clear about the particular understandings about the culture we want them to take home. Only by having specified the desired results can we focus on the content, methods, and activities most likely to achieve those results. But many teachers begin with and remain focused on textbooks, favored lessons, and time-honored activities—the inputs—rather than deriving those means from what is implied in the desired resultsâ€⠀the output. To put it in an odd way, too many teachers focus on the teaching and not the learning. They spend most of their time thinking, first, about what they will do, what materials they will use, and what they will ask students to do rather than first considering what the learner will need in order to accomplish the learning goals. Consider a typical episode of what might be called content-focused design instead of results-focused design. The teacher might base a lesson on a particular topic (e.g., racial prejudice), select a resource (e.g., To Kill a Mockingbird), choose specific instructional methods based on the resource and topic (e.g., Socratic seminar to discuss the book and cooperative groups to analyze stereotypical images in films and on television), and hope thereby to cause learning (and meet a few English/language arts standards). Finally, the teacher might think up a few essay questions and quizzes for assessing student understanding of the book. This approach is so common that we may well be tempted to reply, What could be wrong with such an approach? The short answer lies in the basic questions of purpose: Why are we asking students to read this particular novel—in other words, what learnings will we seek from their having read it? Do the students grasp why and how the purpose should influence their studying? What should students be expected to understand and do upon reading the book, related to our goals beyond the book? Unless we begin our design work with a clear insight into larger purposes—whereby the book is properly thought of as a means to an educational end, not an end unto itself—it is unlikely that all students will understand the book (and their performance obligations). Without being self-conscious of the specific understandings about prejudice we seek, and how reading and discussing the book will help develop such insights, the goal is far too vague: The approach is more â€Å"by hope† than â€Å"by design.† Such an approach ends up unwittingly being one that could be described like this: Throw some content and activities against the wall and hope some of it sticks. Answering the â€Å"why?† and â€Å"so what?† questions that older students always ask (or want to), and doing so in concrete terms as the focus of curriculum planning, is thus the essence of understanding by design. What is difficult for many teachers to see (but easier for students to feel!) is that, without such explicit and transparent priorities, many students find day-to-day work confusing and frustrating. The twin sins of traditional design More generally, weak educational design involves two kinds of purposelessness, visible throughout the educational world from kindergarten through graduate school. We call these the â€Å"twin sins† of traditional design. The error of activity-oriented design might be called â€Å"hands-on without being minds-on†Ã¢â‚¬â€engaging experiences that lead only accidentally, if at all, to insight or achievement. The activities, though fun and interesting, do not lead anywhere intellectually. Such activity-oriented curricula lack an explicit focus on important ideas and appropriate evidence of learning, especially in the minds of the learners. A second form of aimlessness goes by the name of â€Å"coverage,† an approach in which students march through a textbook, page by page (or teachers through lecture notes) in a valiant attempt to traverse all the factual material within a prescribed time. Coverage is thus like a whirlwind tour of Europe, perfectly summarized by the old movie title If It’s Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium, which properly suggests that no overarching goals inform the tour. As a broad generalization, the activity focus is more typical at the elementary and lower middle school levels, whereas coverage is a prevalent secondary school and college problem. No guiding intellectual purpose or clear priorities frame the learning experience. In neither case can students see and answer such questions as these: What’s the point? What’s the big idea here? What does this help us understand or be able to do? To what does this relate? Why should we learn this? Hence, the students try to engage and follow as best they can, hoping that meaning will emerge. The three stages of backward design Stage 1: Identify desired results What should students know, understand, and be able to do? What content is worthy of understanding? What enduring understandings are desired? In Stage 1 we consider our goals, examine established content standards (national, state, district), and review curriculum expectations. Because typically we have more content than we can reasonably address within the available time, we must make choices. This first stage in the design process calls for clarity about priorities. Stage 2: Determine acceptable evidence How will we know if students have achieved the desired results? What will we accept as evidence of student understanding and proficiency? The backward design orientation suggests that we think about a unit or course in terms of the collected assessment evidence needed to document and validate that the desired learning has been achieved, not simply as content to be covered or as a series of learning activities. This approach encourages teachers and curriculum planners to first â€Å"think like an assessor† before designing specific units and lessons, and thus to consider up front how they will determine if students have attained the desired understandings. Stage 3: Plan learning experiences and instruction With clearly identified results and appropriate evidence of understanding in mind, it is now the time to fully think through the most appropriate instructional activities. Several key questions must be considered at this stage of backward design: What enabling knowledge (facts, concepts, principles) and skills (processes, procedures, strategies) will students need in order to perform effectively and achieve desired results? What activities will equip students with the needed knowledge and skills? What will need to be taught and coached, and how should it best be taught, in light of performance goals? What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals? Note that the specifics of instructional planning—choices about teaching methods, sequence of lessons, and resource materials—can be successfully completed only after we identify desired results and assessments and consider what they imply. Teaching is a means to an end. Having a clear goal helps to foc us our planning and guide purposeful action toward the intended results. Conclusion Backward design may be thought of, in other words, as purposeful task analysis: Given a worthy task to be accomplished, how do we best get everyone equipped? Or we might think of it as building a wise itinerary, using a map: Given a destination, what’s the most effective and efficient route? Or we might think of it as planning for coaching: What must learners master if they are to effectively perform? What will count as evidence on the field, not merely in drills, that they really get it and are ready to perform with understanding, knowledge, and skill on their own? How will the learning be designed so that learners’ capacities are developed through use and feedback? This is all quite logical when you come to understand it, but â€Å"backward† from the perspective of much habit and tradition in our field. A major change from common practice occurs as designers must begin to think about assessment before deciding what and how they will teach. Rather than creating assessments near the conclusion of a unit of study (or relying on the tests provided by textbook publishers, which may not completely or appropriately assess our standards and goals), backward design calls for us to make our goals or standards specific and concrete, in terms of assessment evidence, as we begin to plan a unit or course. The rubber meets the road with assessment. Three different teachers may all be working toward the same content standards, but if their assessments vary considerably, how are we to know which students have achieved what? Agreement on needed evidence of learning leads to greater curricular coherence and more reliable evaluation by teachers. Equally important is the long-term gain in teacher, student, and parent insight about what does and does not count as evidence of meeting complex standards.